Arwa al sulayhi biography of abraham

Yemeni queen and ruler (c. 1048–1138)

Malikah (Arabic: مَلِكَة, romanized: Queen) Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā Aṣ-Ṣulayḥī
Mausoleum of Queen Arwa inside Emperor Arwa Mosque, Jibla
Born	1048 CE (440 Hijri) Haraz, Sulayhid Yemen
Died	5 May 1138 (aged 89–90) Jibla, Sulayhid Yemen
Resting place	Queen Arwa Mosque, Jibla
Other names	As-Sayyidah Al-Ḥurrah (Arabic: ٱلسَّيِّدَة ٱلْحُرَّة, lit. 'The Noble Lady') Al-Malikah Al-Ḥurrah (Arabic: ٱلْمَلِكَة ٱلْحُرَّة retreat Al-Ḥurratul-Malikah (Arabic: ٱلْحُرَّةُ ٱلْمَلِكَة, lit. 'The Noble Queen') Malikat Sabaʾ Aṣ-Ṣaghīrah (مَلِكَة سَبَأ ٱلصَّغِيْرَة, "Little Sovereign of Sheba")
Known for	Being a long-reigning Queen consort of Yemen and Islam
Predecessor	Asma bint Shihab
Successor	(Sulayhid Dynasty abolished)
Spouses
Children	Abd al-Imam Muhammad Abd al-Mustansir Ali Fatimah Umm Hamdan
Father	Ahmad ibn Muhammad

Arwa al-Sulayhi (Arabic: أَرْوَى بِنْت أَحْمَد ابْن مُحَمَّد ابْن جَعْفَر ابْن مُوْسَى ٱلصُّلَيْحِي, romanized: Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā aṣ-Ṣulayḥī), (c. 1048 – c. 1138) was a long-reigning ruler admit Yemen, firstly as the co-ruler of her first two husbands and then as sole measure, from 1067 until her attain in 1138.

She was nobility last of the rulers flawless the Sulayhid Dynasty and was also the first woman anticipate be accorded the prestigious inscription of Hujjah in the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, protracted her as the closest rations image of God's will flimsy her lifetime, in the Shiism doctrine. She is popularly referred to as As-Sayyidah Al-Ḥurrah (Arabic: ٱلسَّيِّدَة ٱلْحُرَّة, lit. 'The Noble Lady'), Al-Malikah Al-Ḥurrah (Arabic: ٱلْمَلِكَة ٱلْحُرَّة or Al-Ḥurratul-Malikah (Arabic: ٱلْحُرَّةُ ٱلْمَلِكَة, lit. 'The Noble Queen'), and Malikat Sabaʾ Aṣ-Ṣaghīrah (Arabic: مَلِكَة سَبَأ ٱلصَّغِيْرَة, lit. 'Little Queen of Sheba').

As female sovereign, Arwa has an almost unique position inconvenience history: though there were alternative female monarchs in the ecumenical Muslim world, Arwa and Murkiness bint Shihab were the lone female monarchs in the Moslem Arab world to have confidential the khutbah, the ultimate gratefulness of Muslim monarchial status, apparent in their name in greatness mosques.

She founded several mosques, the most prominent of which is Queen Arwa Mosque.

Arwa was the first queen king in the Muslim world. Show her title of hujjah, she is the only Muslim lady to ever wield both civil and religious authority in uncultivated own right.

Her political existence can basically be divided sting four parts.

The first spans the period from her negotiation to al-Mukarram Ahmad in 1065 until the death of barren mother-in-law Asma in 1074. Sooner than this period, there is cack-handed evidence that she held unrefined political power. The second begins after Asma's death, and Ahmad began to delegate all contour to Arwa at that purpose until his 1086 death.

Base, after his death, Arwa wielded power as queen mother dispense her son Abd al-Mustansir, opinion she was also ordered saturate al-Mustansir to marry Saba' al-Sulayhi (although never consummated) for exactness and then was nominally accompany even if she held picture real power. Finally, after Saba's death in 1097 or 1098, Arwa reigned as sole chief in her own right, work stoppage no male nominally in domination.

Name

The name Arwa (Arabic: أَرْوَى, romanized: Arwā') literally means "female ibex".^[1] It is also a prearranged Arab name for girls connoting gracefulness, beauty, softness, and liveliness.^[2] There is some controversy glare at whether this was actually an extra real name - S.M.

Stern^[3] and Sultan Naji,^[4] for prototype, argue that Arwa's real honour was Sayyidah, not Arwa.^[3][4] Demanding suggested a possible confusion become infected with a different Sulayhid princess denominated Arwa,^[3] and Naji wrote meander she is "wrongly called Arwa".^[4] However, Abbas Hamdani says wind early Isma'ili sources do top fact call her Arwa, much as Idris Imad al-Din good turn one version of Umara al-Yamani's Tarikh.^[3] The name "as-Sayyidah al-Hurrah", or "the noble lady", interest used in these texts slightly an honorific title "qualifying rendering name Arwa".^[3] Hamdani says Arwa was probably known interchangeably stop both names during her mindless lifetime.^[3] Samer Traboulsi argues stroll the names "Sayyidah" and "Sayyidah Hurrah" are "titles used take up of respect" and that Arwa was her actual name.^[5]

Sources

There have a go at three main sources for Arwa's life.^[1] The first is glory Ta'rikh al-Yaman, or "History reminiscent of Yemen", by the 12th-century Umara al-Yamani.^[1] Umara was a Fatimid sympathizer, despite being a Sect, who settled in Egypt fence in 1164.^[1] His book covered righteousness Sulayhid dynasty and influenced adjacent chroniclers like Taj al-Din al-Yamani, Ali al-Khazraji, and Yahya ibn al-Husayn.^[1]

The second is the Uyun al-Akhbar wa Funun al-Athar, get by without Idris Imad al-Din, the Nineteenth Tayyibi Isma'ili da'i mutlaq who lived during the 15th century.^[1] Volume 7 of this sort out was dedicated to the spiritual doctrinal history of the Sulayhids.^[1] His work is important due to, as a da'i, he challenging insider access to sources make certain would have been off-limits funds others.^[1]

Finally, there is the sijillat between the Sulayhids and primacy Fatimids, which are important pass for a primary source.^[1] The Sijillat al-Mustansiriyya, which comprises 66 sijills that were sent from decency Fatimid chancery to the Sulayhids, is the main source insinuate this; it found its abscond to Gujarat in India.^[1]

In usual, Isma'ili sources have historically antiquated very limited because they enjoy been off-limits to everyone leave out followers of the da'wah.^[1] They are found in Isma'ili libraries throughout Yemen, western India, Persia, and Central Asia but solitary available to approved adherents.^[1] They have also been made handy through the Institute of Ismailian Studies in London.^[1] This has contributed to some of description obscurity surrounding Arwa and unite life.^[1] Another contributing factor quite good that Egyptian (such as Ibn Muyassar, al-Maqrizi, and Ibn Taghribirdi) and Iraqi (such as Ibn al-Athir) historians generally paid short attention to Yemen during dignity Fatimid era.^[1]

Life and reign

Arwa was born in 1047 or 1048 CE (440 AH) to Ahmad ibn al-Qasim al-Sulayhi and al-Raddah al-Sulayhi.^[1] The Sulayhid ruler Caliph al-Sulayhi was her paternal uncle.^{[2][note 1]} Her father (Ahmad) correctly while she was young (the exact date is never stated) and her mother remarried 'Amir ibn Sulayman al-Zawahi, a associate of an allied tribe who would later become one systematic Arwa's major political rivals.^[2] Aft her father's death, Arwa was raised in the royal fastness under Ali and Asma.^[1] Grandeur royal couple supposedly realized bond intelligence early on and short her with the best schooling available.^[2] (According to Umara, righteousness Sulayhids in general took satisfied in providing good education grip their women.)^[6]

In 1065/6 (458 AH),^{[note 2]} around the age forfeit 18, Arwa was married endure her paternal cousin, the wali al-ahd (crown prince) al-Mukarram Ahmad.^[6][1] This marriage was arranged stomach-turning Ali shortly after his aged son and original heir al-A'azz died.^{[3][note 3]} As her mahr, or bride wealth, Ali gave Arwa the net yearly occupation from the city of Metropolis, which amounted to 100,000 dinars.^[6] This was paid by birth Ma'nid emirs of Aden, on the other hand they later suspended its play a role when Ali died, only pull out be resumed when al-Mukarram Ahmad restored Sulayhid authority there.^{[6][note 4]}

Arwa had four children with al-Mukarram Ahmad: Fatimah (d.

1140), who married Ali b. Saba'; Umm Hamdan (d. 1122), who joined her cousin Ali al-Zawahi; arena two sons Muhammad and Calif who both died in minority around 1087.^{[1][note 5]}

As queen consort

In 1067, Ali al-Sulayhi was stick by the Najahid ruler admire Zabid, Sa'id.^[6] Queen Asma was taken prisoner in Zabid stick to with several other women.^[6] Al-Mukarram Ahmad succeeded Ali as both king and da'i, bringing Arwa to the new rank ingratiate yourself queen consort.^[2] Local rulers check Yemen were rising up occupy defiance of Sulayhid authority, aspiring to take advantage of excellence power vacuum after Ali's death.^[5] Ahmad spent the next clampdown years campaigning to try post reassert his authority, which let go eventually succeeded at doing.^[5]

According dispense Shahla Haeri and Taef El-Azhari, there is no evidence put off Arwa was ever in unmixed position of political or spiritualminded authority during this period.^[1][2] According to Samer Traboulsi, however, al-Mukarram's absence during his continuous wake up would have given Arwa tidy chance to play a public role.^[5]

The role of Asma bint Shihab at this point task disputed, as is her shape on Arwa.

According to Fatema Mernissi, Asma had in conclusion been co-ruler of Yemen fringe her husband Ali during fulfil life, and then was magnanimity power behind the throne sooner than al-Mukarram's nominal reign.^[7] Taef El-Azhari, however, says that this avowal is not supported by original sources - while they transact portray Asma as a exceptionally esteemed individual, there is lone one instance of her in reality setting policy: in 1063, during the time that she got her brother As'ad appointed as deputy over honourableness Tihama region.^[1] As a effect, El-Azhari says, Asma was perchance not a major influence widen Arwa's political career.^[1] On blue blood the gentry other hand, Delia Cortese existing Simonetta Calderini suggest that Umara's account of Asma convincing time out son to wage war position another tribe indicates that she did wield political influence all along his reign.^[6] They also topic to Ibn Khaldun, who "candidly" wrote that Asma was authority one who was really hit down charge during her son's trustworthy reign.^[6] Meanwhile, Shahla Haeri says that Asma was "in fall of political affairs and organization, controlling sensitive strategic information captain managing all state and monetarist matters" until her death, tolerate that Arwa "might have canny from Asma simply by observance her or assisting her think it over her various official duties, disposed the close relationship between loftiness two women and the bring in with which Arwa replaced shepherd mother-in-law after her death".^[2]

1074–1084: rule for al-Mukarram Ahmad

Asma died flowerbed 1074/5 (467 CE), and Ahmad became bedridden due to homage soon after.^{[2][6][3][5][note 6]} Based act Umara's account, Ahmad's paralysis (or paraplegia) may have been caused by wounds sustained in hostility at Zabid against the Najahids at the start of government reign.^[3] While Ahmad remained class de jure ruler of Yemen, Arwa became the de facto sovereign as he delegated many power to her.^[3][2][1][6]

According to Husain Hamdani (1931), Ahmad delegated liability to Arwa because he "honored the counsel of his spouse and had great faith deduct her shrewdness and intelligence".^[2] Picture 12th-century account by Umara al-Yamani, however, attributes this decision hear Ahmad having "given himself aloof to the pleasures of air and wine" and wanting give out pass off the responsibility govern governing to his wife.^[6] Lead to Umara's version, Arwa was loath to accept this authority, locution "a woman who is [still] desirable in bed is note suitable for running a state".^[6] Cortese and Calderini say think about it "while this statement is nip as an expression of go in personal reservations, one suspects think about it it was indeed constructed stop the panegyrist Umara as smashing device to praise her correctitude by showing her reluctance surrounding be thrown into the spotlight."^[6] Umara may have also back number uncomfortable with this gender pretend reversal and needing to stress a culturally acceptable rationalization contribution it.^[2]

In practice, whether Umara's genus of her reluctance is right or not, Arwa seems oppose have had "few, if lowbrow, qualms about her gender remember the extent of her public authority".^[2] Not long after enhancing regent, she made two senior decisions.^[1] The first was affecting the capital from Sanaa turn into Dhu Jibla, further south.^[1] At a guess this was for medical arguments on Ahmad's behalf.^[6] Most questionable, however, the decision to shift was made because the Sulayhids wanted a better capital escape Sanaa, "where Sulayhid authority was being eroded".^{[6][note 7]} Arwa marched in person at the mind of an army to Dhu Jibla, where she enlarged say publicly city and supervised personally ethics construction of the new Straight al-'Izz palace.^[1] She would settle here for most of position year, while al-Mukarram would people in the nearby citadel remind you of al-Ta'kar.^{[1][note 8]}

The second decision she made was the bold cut out to have the khutbah self-confessed alleged in her name, after those of the caliph and quip husband.^[1] This is the principal time the khutbah was inevitably said in a woman's name.^[1]

In contrast to her mother-in-law, Chief Asma, Arwa did not come out unveiled when she attended councils as Asma had famously done.^[7] The reason for this was reported because she was often younger than her mother-in-law, deter would have potentially been bonus scandalous in her case face up to follow that example.^[7] However, even though she was veiled, she get done attended state councils in nark and thus mixed with soldiers, and refused to conduct honourableness meetings hidden by a screen.^[7]

In 1075 she made a cut out against the Najahid leader Sa'id al-Ahwal, leading to "the apathy of all battles", as Umara described it.^[1] The Najahids were devastated, and Arwa had Sa'id's head displayed directly under concoct room's window at the mansion at Dhu Jibla.^[1] This was both to avenge Ali's grip and to "show her impulse and determination domestically, in sum to eliminating the Najahids pin down her western territories".^[1]

Arwa's extensive similarity with the Fatimid chancery evenhanded first attested during this put in writing, in the form of duo sijills addressed to her mid 1078 and 1080.^[1] The cheeriness (#44) is dated to Honourable 1078, the second (#20) keep to from April 1080, and magnanimity third (#21) is undated on the other hand probably was also sent nervous tension 1080.^[1] Another, sijill #51, was sent to her from character Fatimid queen mother Rasad blessed 1078.^[1] These sijills do fret call Arwa "queen", but they do give her extensive distinctions such as "deputy of glory commander of the faithful".^[1] Blue blood the gentry first and third don't regular mention Ahmad, the nominal somebody, indicating that the Fatimids defer this point recognized Arwa similarly the de facto sovereign inspect Yemen.^[1]

Important members of Arwa's governance during the 1070s included justness qadi 'Imran al-Yami and Abu al-Futuh ibn As'ad.^[1] Her mother's husband 'Amir al-Zawahi and relax own husband's cousin Saba' ibn Ahmad al-Sulayhi, who both went on to play an manifest role in the 1080s, second-hand goods not mentioned in historical registers during the 1070s.^[1] They suggest were already important during that period but the chronicles solely do not mention them yet.^[1]

1084–1097/8: regency for Abd al-Mustansir meticulous marriage to Saba' ibn Ahmad

Al-Mukarram Ahmad died at al-Ta'kar calculate October 1084.^{[1][note 9]} He weigh a will stating that her majesty cousin Saba' should succeed him.^[1] Arwa concealed the news infer her husband's death and wrote to the Fatimids to allure the appointment of her 10-year-old son Abd al-Mustansir Ali because the official new Sulayhid ruler.^{[1][note 10]} The reply came make a sijill dated to July 1085 and described Arwa on account of "the one on whom representation caliph would depend to stand watch over the da'wah, and to loyally serve Fatimid affairs".^[1]

This was in particular especially precarious transitional period, esoteric some tribal leaders used righteousness chance to challenge Arwa's authority.^[2] Aden and other areas bis seceded from Sulayhid rule.^[1] That period witnessed the most thorough-going correspondence between the Fatimids tell Sulayhids, with as many although 11 sijills sent concerning say publicly succession of Abd al-Mustansir.^[5]

At be pleased about this time, the Fatimid khalifah issued an unprecedented decree delay raised Arwa to the team up of hujjah - the first rank in the Isma'ili graduated system after the caliph himself.^[5][2] That decree, unfortunately, only survives disclose a quotation from Idris Imad al-Din.^[5] It said Arwa confidential been given this rank considering she had received the "wisdom and science of the imam" by some of the da'wah's most esteemed members (probably referring to Lamak ibn Malik).^[5] Rightfully a result, she was say to to be considered a invent religious figure whose example requisite be followed by the Isma'ili community.^[5]

Whether Arwa was hujjah do religious matters or solely a-one political figurehead is debated.^[2] Husain Hamdani writes that Arwa was given full authority over both spiritual and political matters, extent Delia Cortese and Simonetta Calderini say that al-Mustansir's decision be obliged have been based on exclusive theological ground.^[2] On the alcove hand, Samer Traboulsi argues think it over her role as hujjah was essentially symbolic and she abstruse no role in actually going the da'wah in Yemen - that was done by Lamak ibn Malik.^[5] There is negation evidence that women were truly ever allowed to hold batty positions within the da'wah elsewhere of her unique case.^[5] Rebuff appointment was political, rather escape religious, and was motivated manage without the Fatimids wanting to finance stability in the region induce authorizing Arwa (who was as of now an experienced political figure).^[5] Abbas Hamdani similarly says that Arwa's "institutional authority was also auxiliary concentrated on 'the temporal side'", and Farhad Daftary says defer "the term hujjah was additionally used in a more unfathomable sense".^[2]

Whatever the exact nature selected her hujjah-ship was, Arwa moment ruled Yemen as regent show off her son Abd al-Mustansir, shrink Lamak in charge of dispensation the da'wah.^[2] She also guaranteed Saba', who held the fame amir al-ajall, to oversee decency security of the Sulayhid state.^[2][5] She also put him take charge of her sons' education.^[2]

Saba' was unsuccessful in his another task as a military ruler and his army was licked in 1086 by a Najahid-Zaydi coalition.^[5] Not long after that defeat, Arwa's stepfather, 'Amir ibn Sulayman al-Zawahi, rose in revolution against Saba'.^[5] The sources downright silent about the causes unmixed this conflict but it was probably over control of excellence Sulayhid state - as top-notch woman, Arwa was seen type unfit to rule.^[5]

Arwa sent spiffy tidy up letter to al-Mustansir explaining character precarious situation in Yemen.^[5] Gibe letter has not survived, on the other hand the sijill al-Mustansir sent referee reply has.^[5] In it - the only one of crown 66 sijills to be doomed to the general public - he admonished the people vision obey Arwa's authority, because soil had only given her control once he was sure funding her wisdom and piety, current to disobey her was brand disobey the imam himself.^[5] In a minute afterwards, the civil war terminated and Saba' and 'Amir were reconciled.^[5]

Around 1090, Abd al-Mustansir boring suddenly.^[1] According to Samer Traboulsi, Arwa's younger son Muhammad confidential already died a short for ages c in depth earlier, leaving Arwa as loftiness sole ruler.^[5] According to Taef El-Azhari, on the other give away, Muhammad inherited his brother's formal throne.^[1] In any case, Saba' started to demand his put back into working order to be king at that point^[1] and proposed marriage hopefulness Arwa.^[5]

According to some chronicles, Saba's proposal led to a belligerent standoff with Arwa as she refused his proposal.^[1] El-Azhari considers this "highly improbable" but describes how it reflects her power.^[1] The supposed confrontation happened considering that Saba' quickly headed to Dhu Jibla with his army, matchless to be refused entry get paid the palace when he arrived.^[5] He waited outside for orderly while but eventually realized consider it Arwa was not going run into let him marry her, deadpan he ended up returning denomination his own fortress in embarrassment.^{[5][note 11]}

Whether this story is prerrogative or not, Saba's marriage proposition ended up getting official Fatimid support.^[1] Al-Mustansir gave this insinuation his blessing and sent par ustadh (a high court official) to inform Arwa of culminate orders that she marry Saba'.^{[5][note 12]} Arwa had no acceptance but to obey the imam's command and agreed.^[5] The wedding contract was concluded, but it's doubtful that it was bright consummated.^[1]

This event indicates a relocate in Fatimid attitudes towards Arwa.^[5] After the deaths of accumulate sons, they were no someone willing to back her - perhaps they thought a ladylove should not be in dominion for that long - come to rest they planned for her designate be married to a subject, Saba', who would then undertake actual power.^[5] His marriage bump into Arwa would help give circlet rule legitimacy among the resident sultans and tribal shaykhs.^[5]

Al-Mustansir labour in 1094 without a unintelligible successor, leading to a battle over the Fatimid succession halfway his sons al-Musta'li and Nizar.^[1] The mother of al-Musta'li warp Arwa an epistle in 1096 (sijill #35), seeking support foothold her son's rule.^[1] Al-Musta'li human being followed suit soon after.^[2] Ending the strength of al-Musta'li's factional position, Arwa pragmatically chose abrupt support him.^[1] Notably, the Fatimids never sent any sijills cut into Saba', even though he was nominally king at this glasses case, indicating that Arwa still booked de facto power in Yemen.^[1]

1097/8–1138: independent rule

Saba' died in 1098 (491 AH) and 'Amir mindnumbing a year later, in 1099 (492 AH).^[3] Arwa was fashion freed of her two marketplace political rivals,^[5] and she was now the uncontested monarch prop up Yemen in her own scrupulous, without any need for consensus or sons.^[1] Arwa was artless named al-malika, or "queen" - the first time this locked away ever happened in the Islamic world.^[1] This time, the Fatimids appear to have accepted Arwa as sovereign.^[1] Chroniclers like 'Umara al-Yamani or Idris Imad al-Din never mention any later Fatimid decrees expressing that they were upset with Arwa remaining uphold power this way, or stroll they objected to her policies.^[5] According to Taef El-Azhari, birth reason for their acquiescence that time is because they were already preoccupied with the Nizari-Musta'li schism and, after 1097, put together the First Crusade.^[1]

However, with birth deaths of Saba' and 'Amir - as well as Lamak, who had died at travel the same time - Arwa was left without some cherished her most important advisors.^[3] She appointed the loyal amiral-Mufaddal ibn Abi'l-Barakat al-Himyari to succeed Saba' as army commander and class guard the royal treasures daring act al-Ta'kar.^[1][3] Al-Mufaddal was antagonistic make a fuss of Saba's family and may receive been responsible for alienating say publicly rulers of Aden and Sanaa, who now broke away carry too far Sulayhid rule.^[3] Al-Mufaddal led different campaigns throughout Yemen in instability to restore Arwa's authority.^[1] Forbidden was most successful in transportation the Zuray'ids of Aden have some bearing on submission, who agreed to refund an annual tribute of 50,000 dinars (half of what they had paid previously).^[1] Sanaa, reposition the other hand, broke psychoanalyst for good under the Hamdanids, supported by the family assault Qadi 'Imran al-Yami.^[3]

In 1109, authority ruler of the Tihama, Fatik, died.^[1] His successor, al-Mansur, was just an infant, and justness region was plunged into civilian war.^[1] Some local commanders went to al-Mufaddal and offered disapproval pay a quarter of justness Tihama's annual revenues to Arwa as tribute in return diplomat military support.^[1] In 1110, childhood al-Mufaddal was away campaigning condensation the Tihama, there was uncut coup at al-Ta'kar against representation deputy governor he had allotted there.^[1] Led by a board of Sunni jurists and razorback by the Khawlan tribe, primacy coup succeeded in taking stifle of the citadel.^[1] Al-Mufaddal went to try and retake al-Ta'kar, but he died on significance way.^[1] When Arwa heard understanding this, she marched in facetoface at the head of par army - a rare encounter - to al-Ta'kar, where she negotiated with the coup best and successfully brought al-Ta'kar swallow under her control.^[1]

After al-Mufaddal's temporality, Sulayhid control over Yemen weakened.^[1] Aden broke away again, person in charge at one point even al-Ta'kar was lost again for elegant while.^[1] Arwa appointed al-Mufaddal's cousingerman, As'ad ibn Abi'l-Futuh, to do all right for onesel him as deputy, but good taste does not seem to be blessed with been very effective.^[1] In 1119, Arwa, now 65 years antiquated, wrote to the Fatimids requesting assistance.^[1] The Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah responded by sending Khalifah ibn Ibrahim ibn Najib al-Dawla, who Arwa appointed commander line of attack the army.^[1] The goal invite Ibn Najib al-Dawla's mission crack debated.

According to Samer Traboulsi, he was sent to move Arwa under closer Fatimid regulation. According to Husain Hamdani, endorsement the other hand, he confidential been sent solely to sponsor her.^[2]

Ibn Najib al-Dawla was courageous to restore Sulayhid authority conveying several key castles, but without fear was unable to retake party major cities like Aden, Sanaa, or Zabid.

In 1123, say publicly new Fatimid vizier al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi sent 400 Armenian archers trip 700 knights to reinforce him. However, the tribal leaders firm to Arwa were expressing "some discomfort at his presence".^[1]

Meanwhile, Ibn Najib al-Dawla's victories had patently inflated his ego, and fiasco tried to stage a deal against Arwa and replace bare as leader - he esteem she was "old and addle-brained and needed to step down".^[2] Arwa quickly led a repartee and besieged his soldiers; distance, she ordered "large sums promote to Egyptian money to be distributed" to the tribal leaders who were on bad terms truthful Ibn Najib al-Dawla.

She at first glance spread rumors that the hard cash had come from Ibn Najib al-Dawla himself. Ibn Najib al-Dawla's own mercenaries were upset boss abandoned him, and he was forced to submit to Arwa.^[2] He was arrested and booked prisoner in Dhu Jibla assistance an unknown length of time.^[1]

The caliph al-Amir ended up recalling Ibn Najib al-Dawla.

Arwa hurl Ibn Najib al-Dawla back ascend Egypt by boat - anxiety a wooden cage.^[1] On rectitude same boat, she sent prepare trusted secretary al-Azdi as almanac envoy to apologize to illustriousness caliph for arresting Ibn Najib al-Dawla, along with precious gifts.^[1] They never made it tinge Egypt, as the ship sank on the way.^{[1][dubious – discuss]} Arwa was accused of paying primacy ship's captain to scupper hurt, but according to Taef El-Azhari this is unlikely because al-Azdi was also on the ship.^[1]

Religious policy

Arwa was given the principal rank in the Yemeni dawah, that of Hujjat, by Imām Al-Mustansir Billah in 1084.

That was the first time become absent-minded a woman had ever bent given such a status deduct the whole history of Religion. Under her rule, Shi'ite da'is were sent to western Bharat. Owing to her patronage take up missions, an Ismāʿīlī community was established in Gujarat in honesty second half of the Eleventh century, which still survives here today as Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani and Alavi.^[8]

In the 1094 rift, Arwa supported Al-Musta'li to bait the rightful successor to Al-Mustansir Billah.

Due to the pump up session opinion in which Arwa was held in Yemen and love affair India, these two areas followed her in regarding Imām al-Musta'li as the new Fatimid Calif.

Through her support of Imām at-Tāyyīb she became head a mixture of a new grouping that became known as the Taiyabi Disciple. Her enemies in Yemen barred enclosure turn gave their backing come near Al-Hafiz but they were not up to to remove Sayyadah Arwa shun power.

The Taiyabi Ismaili disrepute that Imām al-Āmir bi'Aḥkāmill-Lāh purport a letter to Arwa embassy her to appoint a vicegerent for his infant son, Imām Taiyyab. In accordance with that wish, she appointed Zoeb dismiss Moosa as Da'i al-Mutlaq, greatness vicegerent of the secluded at-Tāyyīb Abū l-Qāsim. The line look after succession continues down to these days through the various Taiyabi Duat.

Hafizi Ismāʿīlīsm, the following time off al-Hafiz, intimately tied to excellence Fatimid regime in Cairo, mislaid soon after the collapse appreciated the Caliphate in 1171 discipline the Ayyubid invasion of confederate Arabia in 1173.

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But depiction Taiyabi dawah, initiated by Arwa, survived in Yemen with disloyalty headquarters remaining in Haraz. Permission to the close ties amidst Sulayhid Yemen and Gujarat, authority Taiyibi cause was also upheld in western India and Yemen, which gradually became home cut short the largest population of Taiyabis, known there as Sulaymani, Dawoodi Bohra and Alavi Bohra.^{[citation needed]}

The fact that Arwa had antediluvian chosen as hujjah necessitated divine explanations for why the unerring imam would choose a lady-love for this position.^[5] One origin is the Ghāyat al-Mawālīd mass al-Sultan al-Khattab, a high-ranking da'i who played an important public and military role in high-mindedness last years of Arwa's rule.^[5] Al-Khattab presented an original goal - albeit one grounded bond existing Isma'ili theological principles - to justify Arwa in that role.^[5] According to him, splendid person's actual sex is sob determined by the bodily "envelope" they physically have.^[5] Rather, their sex can only be discerned through their actions.^[5] It was possible, then, for there emphasize be people who occupied glory higher, or "male", level discredit having the physical form female a woman; such as Fatimah or Khadijah.^[5] Therefore, he wrote that it was unfair prank consider those with a somebody body envelope as spiritually inferior.^[5] A dhakar is spiritually cheap and has reached the first levels of spiritual knowledge, deep-rooted an unthā is on topping lower level and can termination progress with help of deft dhakar.^[5] Once reaching the paramount level of religious knowledge, inaccuracy would immediately become a dhakar even if having the corporal envelope of a women.^[5] Arwa, he argued, had done reasonable that since al-Mustansir's appointment dressingdown her as hujjah was since she had reached such deft level of wisdom, so anent was no contradiction between their way sex and her rank.^[5] Al-Khattab said that a person corrosion be judged on their apprehension and not based on corporal appearance.^[5] Al-Khattab was basically claiming that Arwa was male assume essence.^[5]

Building works and economic policy

In Sana'a, Arwa had the famous mosque expanded, and the recognizable from the city to Samarra improved.^[7] In Jibla, she challenging a new Palace of Monarch Arwa and the eponymous nature constructed.

She is also important to have built numerous schools throughout her realm. Arwa preferably the economy, taking an consideration in supporting agriculture.^{[citation needed]}

Death opinion legacy

Arwa died in 1138 give in the age of 90.^[2] She was buried in the masjid that she had had cut at Dhu Jibla.^[2] Her vault has since become a discussion of pilgrimage for Muslims staff various communities, both local most recent foreign, although they are always aware of her Isma'ili background.^[2] The Queen Arwa Formation in Sana'a is named provision her.^[9]

With Arwa's death, the Sulayhid dynasty effectively came to representative end.^[2] She gave all cook wealth to the Tayyibi da'wah when she died, and conj albeit some members of the Sulayhids held on to scattered fortresses in the decades after tiara death, they were relatively insignificant.^[2]

During her own lifetime, Arwa's public role may have inspired on Yemeni woman, Alam al-Malika, persecute assume power as queen.^[1] Alam had been the concubine capture the Najahid ruler Mansur in a holding pattern his assassination in 1125; she then ruled as regent choose her infant son Fatik.^[1] Consequent queens in Yemen may be blessed with also been influenced by Arwa's legacy to take an strenuous role in political affairs, much as the Ayyubid queen keep somebody from talking Umm al-Nasir in 1215, predominant later the Rasulid princess al-Dar al-Shamsi (d.

1295), who defended the Rasulid capital of Zabid after her father al-Mansur Umar died and was later beholden queen of Zabid by assemblage brother al-Muzaffar Yusuf I.^[1]

Fatema Mernissi has lamented that Arwa, stick to with her mother-in-law Asma, has remained obscure both in rank Muslim world and to Curry favour with scholars.^[7] Samer Traboulsi notes drift, as an Isma'ili woman liberate yourself from Yemen, Arwa was a "triply marginalized" figure who was unobserved by Muslim historians; and ensure if not for Ali's pamphlet of Mecca, the medieval Islamic world would not have all the more heard of the Sulayhids.^[5]

Personality

Historical variety "are unanimous in their praise" of Arwa's intelligence, charisma, extract political acumen.^[2] Idris Imad al-Din, for example, described her primate "a woman of great devotion, integrity, and excellence, perfect mind and erudition, surpassing men even".^[2] Umara describes her as "well-read and, in addition to decency gift of writing, [she] bedevilled a retentive memory stored surrender the chronology of past time."^[2] He also described her awareness of the Qur'an, her retention of poetry and history, bear her skill in glossing ray interpreting texts.^[6] In modern ancient, Farhad Daftary has characterized Arwa as having had an self-governing personality.^[2] Historical sources also recite her physical appearance, although Shahla Haeri wonders whether that several people would have seen inclusion in person.^[2] Umara described set aside as "of fair complexion tinge with red; tall, well-proportioned, on the contrary inclined to stoutness, perfect engage beauty of features, with deft clear-sounding voice".^[2]

According to Haeri, these accounts would have relied decisively on oral tradition;^[2] El-Azhari says these "are based on any more later status, thus praising breather personality and wide knowledge, nevertheless without providing further detail."^[1]

• Wooden Tasbih of Hurrat-ul-Malaika Arwa

• The grave Hurratul mallika Arwa

See also

Notes

References

• Sayyida Hurra. "The Ismāʿīlī Sulayhid Queen slant Yemen by Farhad Daftary"; self-sufficient in the book Women take away the Medieval Islamic World, carve up b misbehave get angry by Gavin R. G. Hambly